This toolkit aims to support and assist education staff, partner agencies and CYP practitioners in their work with children, young people and families by providing information, advice and links to resources specific to knife crime, including lesson plans for KS2 which can be accessed in the resources section at the bottom of this page.
With a steady rise in knife related crimes being reported over the last few years, there is a concern that it is fast becoming an epidemic across the country, specifically impacting on young people, families and communities. It must be recognised that these concerns are not just being felt by adults but also by children and young people themselves.
National and local research continues to determine root causes of why young people are carrying knives to inform the work needed to tackle the issue and reduce the risks posed.
Although not exhaustive, below are some common factors known to influence young people to carry knives:. The law takes a robust approach to dealing with knife crime — adults charged with possession of a knife will automatically go before a court. In cases where the carrier is yrs, they will automatically be referred to the Youth Offending Team — a charging decision will be made by a multi-agency panel, based on a range of factors relevant to the incident.
Outcomes vary and range from participation in a 20 week programme to educate and prevent repeated behaviour, to being sent to court. To provide a rich reflection of evidence for the reader, we included both quantitative and qualitative studies as there is comparatively little evidence published on this topic within the inclusion parameters specified.
Deductive thematic analysis was completed for qualitative papers using themes as set-out by the WHO. As previously mentioned, risk factors were divided into four categories, and subcategories within these, following the Ecological Framework put forward by the WHO [ 3 ]: individual; relationships; community; and societal.
WHO violence risk factors not identified within included studies are also shown. Each subcategory of risk factor is discussed in the subsequent sections. As mentioned previously, a paper focusing on education and crime age profile was not included within the review due to ranking low quality [ 32 ].
Of the 16 studies included within the review, 10 investigated the association of demography with knife crime Table 2. All six studies investigating age found a positive association between knife crime and adolescence [ 21 , 23 , 26 , 28 , 30 , 31 ]. Regarding gang violence, three studies found a young person, compared to other age groups, is positively associated with being in a gang [ 23 , 26 , 33 ].
Results were mixed regarding the association with gender. One cohort and one cross-sectional study showed males were more likely to be associated with knife crime [ 22 , 28 ]. A cross sectional-study looked more closely at the characteristics of weapon-carrying, e.
No significant association between gang violence and gender was found in the three papers exploring this issue [ 24 , 26 , 31 ]. However, a literature review suggests that migrants and refugees may be at higher risk of victimisation of weapon-related crime [ 20 ] which may explain the overrepresentation within the media.
A cross-sectional study of school students and a case-control with young offenders completed self-reported questionnaires and, through use of pre-determined criteria, were divided into categories depending on gang involvement. Comparisons of a variety of groups, rather than investigating one specific cohort of gang members, allows for differences to be evaluated.
As neither studies identified a difference between the ethnicity of groups divided by level of gang involvement, this suggests no association with gang violence [ 20 , 25 , 31 ]. All seven studies investigating the association between teenagers with ACEs and weapon-related crime reported a positive association Table 2. Three studies investigated the impact of school exclusion on involvement in knife crime [ 19 , 21 , 29 ].
However, one study did not show a clear association between education and gang membership. During qualitative interviews current and previous gang members expressed their opinions that school achievements and successful routes through education were unattainable [ 24 ].
On the other hand, some gang members had obtained GCSEs and were still involved in criminality [ 24 ]. However, as all individuals were removed from their family home this may affect the findings.
A cross-sectional study of 20 adolescents committing homicide revealed that all participants suffered from high levels of interpersonal conflict and psychological vulnerabilities [ 29 ]. A case-control study of men found that self-identified gang members and gang affiliates had a higher prevalence of psychological issues, including anxiety, psychosis and suicide attempt, than violent men not involved in gangs [ 27 ].
For the particular study, gang affiliates and members both were involved in gang-related activity, however, categories differed as gang affiliates did not identify as a gang member. Furthermore, gang members were more likely to be targeted as victims and self-reported more serious injuries compared to non-gang members [ 30 ].
Gang affiliates also reported more incidents involving physical attacks compared to violent men who were not part of gangs, however unexpectedly more than gang members [ 27 ]. Results found individuals who self-reported victimisation were more likely to offend and vice versa, therefore a bidirectional relationship may exist between being a perpetrator and victim of weapon-related crime.
Seven studies reported peer influence as an important risk factor for knife crime Table 2. In conjunction with this, two studies showed peer influence as an important risk factor for gang membership [ 25 , 26 ]. Two studies investigated parental relationships in association with knife crime and all identified that strong parental attachment acted as a protective factor [ 20 , 22 ]. At age 15, a cohort study found conflicts with parents increased risk of victimisation and offending [ 20 ].
Six studies included in this review investigated the impact of deprivation, all of which showed a positive association with knife crime. Deprivation can further result in low social cohesion which has further been associated with offending behaviour of adolescents and gang members [ 31 ].
Three studies suggested a positive impact of economic deprivation and knife crime Table 3. Four studies showed a positive association between stigma and discrimination and weapon-related crime [ 8 , 23 , 25 , 31 ]. A cross-sectional study of secondary school students found negative perceptions of authority were highest in gang members, followed by peripheral youth individuals involved within gang-related activity, but not classified as members , and lowest in non-gang youth [ 31 ].
Three studies described violence and weapon carrying as a method of gaining status, power, and masculinity [ 19 , 30 , 31 ]. However, the results of the systematic review suggest an unstable environment - within a family, community, or society setting — derived from a multitude of risk factors is a key driver for involvement in weapon-related crime.
This is the first systematic review to assess a wide range of literature to identify risk factors for weapon-related crime, collating and analysing information surrounding a topical and growing public health issue. Results did not identify a strong relationship between ethnicity and youth violence when controlling for confounders, such as SES [ 20 , 25 , 31 ], which contrasts information displayed in the media. While ethnicity had no association, community and societal factors such as economic deprivation did, and these characteristics tended to correlate with certain ethnic minorities.
For example, results showed migrants and refugees recently entering the UK were at higher risk of victimisation [ 17 ] — this may be a result of discrimination these individuals face when entering a new community. It has also been shown that gangs are homogenous and often mirror the demography of the community they associate with [ 31 ].
This relationship between risk factors may lead to the overrepresentation of ethnic minorities as perpetrators and victims of weapon-related crime within police-recorded data and the media. This systematic review did not reveal a clear association between gender and youth violence. The societal pressures of males to display masculinity may provide a possible explanation for their increased threatening behaviour [ 33 ]. Research papers investigating the link between gender and weapon-related crime have shown there are multiple aspects of behaviour regarding knife crime, for example ownership, type of weapon, and use.
However, due to the mixed evidence in this review alone, it is not possible to confirm this relationship or if gender is a risk factor. Seven studies identified ACEs as significant risk factors for weapon-related crime, which strongly supports the relationship between early childhood trauma and violence.
It can be argued that trauma and an unstable family life create an environment which is likely to manifest aggression and poor mental health, increasing the risk of violent behaviour [ 34 ]. This coincides with previous knowledge regarding the long-term effects of traumatic childhood on health within adulthood, including economic deprivation, anxiety, and aggression [ 35 , 36 , 37 ].
Furthermore, two studies highlighted the protective nature of strong parental attachment [ 20 , 22 ] which further supports the importance of a stable home environment and may counteract the effects caused by ACEs. Similar results were found in US-based studies with parental monitoring being negatively associated with gang membership, reducing the effect of other risk factors on adolescents [ 39 ].
This is further supported by the association between poor mental health and weapon-related crime, identified by Bailey et al, Barlas et al, and Clement et al. Poor mental health may be on the causal pathway from ACEs to violent behaviour as those suffering from trauma are more likely to experience poor mental health [ 36 ].
Therefore, these individuals are more likely to act aggressively and those with suicidal thoughts might not consider the repercussions of their actions. There is limited understanding of risk factors for weapon-related crime among young people and current knowledge of gangs has mostly been derived from research conducted within the USA, which means findings will be influenced by its environment of high gun ownership and incarceration rates.
Within a growing field of research, this paper is the first to collect information from scientific and grey literature, analysing and comparing risk factors for weapon-related crime. Therefore, this review provides essential evidence on risk factors identifying which individuals are at high-risk, directing public health interventions to target those most vulnerable to effectively reduce youth violence.
Results are also specific to the UK, with other reports focusing on wider regions, such as Europe, allowing for precise suggestions for mitigation.
However, findings should be balanced against a number of limitations. Only 16 studies were eligible for inclusion, which may have resulted in a constrained range of risk factors identified. However, this is a growing field of research, resulting in a limited number of sources available. Literature reviews were also included within the review and these may be affected by the authors experience or personal views, therefore these should be contextualised.
A meta-analysis could not be conducted due to the heterogeneity and types of studies included within the review, therefore a statistical estimate of effect for each risk factor could not be produced. A narrative synthesis was conducted, which may have resulted in unreliability, lack of transparency, and potential reviewer bias as conclusions are based on subjective interpretation [ 40 ].
However, due to the substantial heterogeneity in populations, outcome, and methodology, a narrative synthesis was the most appropriate methodology for this review.
Although we included grey literature, publication bias is likely to be present, particularly as many studies included within the review conclude positive results. Studies suggesting no association with risk factors and youth violence might by underrepresented within this review.
With regards to the studies included within the review, qualitative interviews investigating gang membership used a chain referral method to recruit participants.
This would have inherent bias as only a specific group of individuals are likely to be included within the analysis, potentially only identifying the same risk factors.
Self-reported questionnaires were also utilised, which may have resulted in erroneous recall. However, due to the sensitive nature of the topic, these methods may be most appropriate to ensure individuals provide honest and accurate information. The identification of risk factors such as ACEs and poor mental health is in line with previous knowledge as a relationship exists between trauma and involvement within weapon-related crime.
For example, multiple studies have highlighted the effect of childhood trauma on adolescent and adult health, psychological and physical [ 36 ]. Areas of high crime, violent incidents, low socioeconomic status and the relationship with youth violence have also previously been highlighted within previous worldwide research [ 3 ].
However, contrasting previous literature, no significant association was found between gender and youth violence. Reports have suggested females play secondary roles within violent crime and gang activity [ 10 ], which may suggest the characteristics of gangs are evolving and research needs updating.
Although many risk factors mentioned within this review have been previously identified, they have not yet been collectively analysed. Therefore, compared to previous literature, this review highlights the interconnected nature of risk factors for weapon-related crime and the necessity for a holistic preventative approach.
As no clear association was found between gender, ethnicity and weapon-related crime, policy makers should avoid targeting individuals based on stereotypes in these areas. This may also reduce discrimination within policy efforts, ensuring a holistic approach to mitigate youth violence. Individuals with ACEs and mental health issues should be targeted within prevention strategies as results suggest these groups are at high-risk for future involvement within violent crime.
Thus far studies investigating this outcome have been very heterogeneous and mixed in quality, further research is necessary in order to aid the design of interventions and to aid policymakers. To prevent individuals in areas of deprivation using violence as a method to improve social status, it is essential for policy makers to target areas of deprivation when tackling gang crime.
Strategies should be aimed at improving employment skills, self-esteem, and also community involvement to increase social cohesion at a young age given the influence of ACEs, acting to prevent future formation of gangs as well as improve the quality of life for the adolescent population. Youth violence is an increasing public health issue within the UK and London in particular.
This study collected information regarding risk factors from a wide range of sources, uniquely examining them within a UK setting. The review demonstrates the importance of stability for an adolescent during times of vulnerability with each risk factor eroding this sense of security. Although it is important to recognise not all adolescents with these risk factors will commit crimes or engage in gangs or violent behaviour, the identified risk factors can act as warning signs that captures young people before they become victims of violence.
This provides essential evidence on which individuals are at high-risk, directing public health interventions to target those most vulnerable to effectively reduce youth violence.
The papers analysed within the review are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. National Center for Health Statistics. But academics stress that the role of social media has been overstated, or at very least oversimplified by the media and policy makers. Can apply to any person aged 12 or over who carries a knife, has been convicted of a knife-related offence, or is suspected by police of carrying one. It came under scrutiny by human rights group Amnesty International last year.
Read more: Police are using big data to profile young people, putting them at risk of discrimination. Here are some solutions for the UK government that academics have proposed :. Divert children and young people away from toxic environments and into positive, nurturing ones that meet their basic needs. How former offenders can make great mentors for at-risk teens. An expert and father comments. Portsmouth Climate Festival — Portsmouth, Portsmouth.
Edition: Available editions United Kingdom. Become an author Sign up as a reader Sign in. Toxic environments are not created by children — who are the victims in these environments — but by politicians and by the politics of austerity.
Local council estates have been hollowed out by a decade of austerity which has ripped away funding for basic services for young people. Austerity abrogates the responsibility to care for, to nurture and to lead children into positive lifestyles, shifting this responsibility to criminal gangs and drug dealers.
Responses to knife crime must be focused on the child and the adult environments that shape them. These partnerships should prioritise positive behaviours and outcomes.
Children need access to services, guidance and opportunities that build their strengths, capacities and aspirations, and develop their pro-social relationships with adults. Children must be diverted away from toxic environments such as the youth justice system, into positive, nurturing ones.
Engaging with children is sustainable and productive. Imposing interventions on children is short-term and destructive. It can make a bad situation worse. Knife crime is a social problem — its causes, not its symptoms, must be treated, and austerity is one of its causes.
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