The treaty effectively ceded the territory of Louisiana and the island of Orleans—essentially what is now New Orleans—to the Spaniards.
The French saw the move as an inducement designed to persuade the Spanish to end the Seven-Years War. Ultimately, they feared the English would win the conflict, and French influence over New Orleans and the surrounding territory would come to an inglorious end.
The Treaty of Fontainebleau was kept secret for nearly a year, and once the French colonists learned of its existence, they revolted. With an already diverse population of French, Creole and Africans both slaves and free settlers , the Spanish had a difficult time governing the colony.
Although they afforded settlers there more freedom than they did those of their other colonies in South America, for example , there were significant restrictions imposed on trade.
Less than 40 years later, perhaps weary of governing a troublesome colony, and feeling the threat of an ambitious French military leader, the brash young Napoleon Bonaparte , Spain relinquished the Louisiana Territory and New Orleans back to France via another secret treaty, the Treaty of San Ildefonso, in However, faced with a slave uprising on the island of Saint Domingue what is now the Dominican Republic and Haiti and the specter of a war with Great Britain over control of Louisiana, Napoleon had a decision to make: Rather than send troops to defend New Orleans, which the British saw for its value as a port, and the surrounding territory, the military leader dispatched 20, soldiers to Saint Domingue to quell the slave revolt, leaving New Orleans and French Louisiana essentially defenseless in the event of a British attack.
Seeing an opportunity, Thomas Jefferson , President of the United States at the time, and his Secretary of State James Madison , decided to fashion an alliance of sorts with the French government. Part and parcel of this relationship was the future governance of Louisiana. It may be more than years since the French have controlled New Orleans, but their influence is obvious in the city to this day—in culture, cuisine, language and geography.
And, of course, there is the French Quarter itself, with its streets still bearing the names given them by the early French settlers and its French- and Spanish-influenced architecture. Finally, there are the obvious links between the French and the Cajun and Creole cultures. By , the population of French colonial Louisiana had shrunk to approximately 3, whites and 4, blacks, due primarily to the return of many settlers to France, the low number of new European immigrants, the near cessation of the importation of African slaves, and low levels of reproduction among both European and African populations.
With the governorship of Vaudreuil came a previously unattained level of prosperity in Lower Louisiana. Some large plantation owners along the Mississippi River replaced tobacco with the more profitable indigo, though small-scale farming of other cash crops and lumbering continued. Louisiana merchants enhanced trade with Spanish ports in Cuba, Mexico, and Florida. Trade between Dauphin Island near Mobile and Pensacola, in particular, remained strong through much of the s.
Some historians estimate a 50 percent increase in population during this period, due primarily to the arrival of fils de cassette coffer girls , Alsatians, and French soldiers. The increase in plantation productivity also marked an increase in the importation of slaves, most of whom came from the French West Indies.
Disputes among the Choctaw, Chickasaw, French, and English increased during the s and s. Red Shoe, a Choctaw chief, encouraged portions of the Choctaw nation and the Alabamas to trade with the English. Tension reached a high point when Red Shoe killed three French traders and Vaudreuil called for revenge. A Choctaw warrior ultimately assassinated Red Shoe. By , the Choctaws were at war with each other, as villages drew battle lines according to English or French alliances.
It was not until the French provided their Choctaw allies with sufficient supplies that a modicum of peace was restored in However, major military conflict between the French and Chickasaw resumed in when Vaudreuil ordered assaults on Chickasaw villages in present-day northern Alabama and Mississippi.
The Chickasaw effectively repelled the French expedition with the help of the English. Reinforcements of questionable quality arrived at intervals during the s and early s, along with the new ordonnateur Vincent Gaspar Pierre de Rochemore.
Rochemore and Kerlerec, though rivals, convinced segments of the Choctaw, Alabamas, Upper Creek, and Cherokee to disrupt the Chickasaw-English alliance throughout the frontiers of the American interior. Insufficient supplies made it difficult for Kerlerec to compete with English traders and soldiers coming out of South Carolina.
The s saw the ousting of Rochemore as ordonnateur and the appointment of Denis-Nicolas Foucault as his replacement. After several years of diplomatic negotiations, the French convinced the Spanish to ally themselves against British interests in Europe and the Americas. Coinciding with the cession of French Louisiana was the suppression of the Jesuit order in , which resulted in the expulsion of all but one Jesuit Michel Baudouin from the Lower Mississippi Valley.
Regardless, the decision to cede Louisiana to Spain had little immediate impact on the local population. Approximately 1, people of European descent and 2, people of African descent resided in and around New Orleans in French trading continued throughout frontier regions west of the Mississippi River.
Charles Parish to Natchez. Levees, both natural and manmade, protected plantations from frequent inundation and functioned as a sort of road for overland travel. In , St. Gabriel just above Bayou La Fourche became the site of one of the first Acadian settlements in Louisiana. Acadians continued to migrate farther west via the Atchafalaya River to the Opelousas and Attakapas districts of southwestern Louisiana during the late s.
French Creole inhabitants, and especially a small group of elite power holders, proved highly influential during the tenure of the first Spanish governor Antonio de Ulloa from to Major Charles Philippe Aubry, the French director-general of Louisiana, and Nicolas Foucault, the ordonnateur , remained the effective administrators of the colony until Ulloa enacted a dual Spanish-French administration in early Prior to then, Ulloa did not proclaim Spanish dominion over Louisiana and allowed the French flag to remain flying over the city of approximately 3, inhabitants.
The passage of strict trade regulations by the Spanish in led Foucault and the powerful French Creole oligarchy to consider an insurrection. The influence of Creole inhabitants people of French and African descent born in Louisiana remained strong during the first decade of Spanish control. Outside New Orleans, the colonial administration of Spanish Louisiana largely fell to the commandants of eleven posts or districts stretching along the Mississippi River from present-day Ascension Parish in the south to present-day St.
Louis in the north. The francophone Creole population both resisted and adapted to the colonial reforms of Unzaga, although adaptation was initially difficult because of the onset of an economic depression during the early s. British influence among Native American groups in Lower Louisiana persisted during the Spanish colonial period. Spanish officials attempted to curtail British advances and conduct Indian affairs according to French modes of gift-giving ceremonies, trade partnerships, and military alliances.
Moreover, during a particularly disruptive ecclesiastical battle between French and Spanish Capuchins, Unzaga demonstrated an interest in reinforcing the religious customs of the French clergy. In , Unzaga left office as governor of Louisiana in the wake of British operations in the Gulf of Mexico that were linked to the American Revolution.
He also granted Creole Louisianans permission to conduct trade with ports in the West Indies and France. Francophone militiamen played a crucial role in Spanish campaigns against British forts at Baton Rouge, Mobile, Pensacola, and Natchez.
These and other posts would ultimately come under Spanish occupation, resulting in an Anglo-Spanish treaty of that left much of the Mississippi Valley and territory south of the Ohio River to the Spanish. He oversaw several immigration schemes that served to dilute the French Creole population of Spanish Louisiana.
Approximately 1, Acadians arrived at New Orleans in , many of whom joined their kin in the Opelousas and Attakapas districts. Anglophone non-Catholics of the Natchez district represented a second major migration group to inhabit Spanish Louisiana during the s. By , the total population of Spanish Louisiana was 32,, up from 18, in The number had increased to more than 42, by For 54 minutes, the most famous clock in the world failed to keep time.
Completed in , Big Ben has a long history of technical issues. The first bell cast for the tower cracked before it Originally called Mesh, the browser that he dubbed WorldWideWeb became On April 30, , British physicist J. Thomson announced his discovery that atoms were made up of smaller components. This finding revolutionized the way scientists thought about the atom and had major ramifications for the field of physics.
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